The crescent and the minaret at the Irish Islamic Centre and mosque in Clonskeagh, Dublin (Photograph: Patrick Comerford)
Patrick Comerford
TH8824: Liturgy, Worship and Spirituality
Year II, 10 a.m. to 12.30 p.m., Thursdays, Hartin Room:
Liturgy 11: 15 December 2016:
11:1 Public prayer, ritual and spirituality in Islamic life;
11.2: Visit to Mosque.
Introduction
Coming to an understanding of the public prayer life, rituals and spirituality of people of other faiths is important for our ministry and mission in the Church. In surprising ways, such an understanding may also provide ways of deepening our own spirituality. It is important too if we are going to understand people on their own terms, and allow them to define themselves.
Seeking to understand Islamic public prayer life, rituals and spirituality is not just a matter of comparative studies. It is also important if we are going to understand Muslims on their own terms, and understand them within the contexts we are working in.
In recent months and years, this has been made difficult for many people in Europe because of the attacks in Paris and the incidents in Brussels. It seems that one reason for widening the chasm follows another: the Bastille Day attacks in Nice, in which 86 people were killed and 434 injured (2016); the murder of a priest in a church in Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray (2016); the Bataclan attack, shootings and hostage taking, in which 130 people were left dead and 352 injured (2015); the attacks on tourists in Sousse in Tunisia, when 38 people were killed (2015); the
Charlie Hebdo attacks (2015), the Sydney hostage crisis (2014), the murder of Lee Rigby (2013), the London Underground bombings (7 July 2005), the Bali bombing (2002), 9/11 (2001), and so on.
On the other hand, imagine how Muslims perceive the intentions of Western military actions in Syria, Libya, Iraq, and so on, or how they react when Donald Trump talks about a compulsory registration of all Muslims and expelling all Syrians, or they reacted to George W Bush's use of the word ‘crusade’ in 2001.
But encounters between Christians and Muslims not only need not be difficult but can be positive and mutually enriching.
I spent Easter week last year in Cappadocia, as part of my continuing research in Patristics. It also provided an opportunity to visit Konya, one of the most holy sites for Muslims. This is the burial place of the great Sufi saint known as Rumi, and is a place of mass pilgrimage. It is the centre of the school Islam we know in the west as the Whirling Dervishes, but in the wider Islamic world it is revered as the location of the many important relics, including the beard of Muslim Prophet Muhammad.
For many years, I have had an interest in this area, and have visited mosques and Muslim communities in Ireland and England, throughout Europe, but also in Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt, Palestine, Syria and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, and further afield in Pakistan, Hong Kong, and so on.
Liturgical and pastoral questions
One of the noticeable changes in the Irish population today is the sizeable presence of Muslims. The 2011 census shows there almost 50,000 Muslims in Ireland today, if not more. The context of your future ministry is within a changing Ireland in which Muslims are increasingly visible and playing a role, and a changing world which, in the wake of the rise of ISIS, Arab Spring and since 9/11, needs to know how to deal with our fears about terrorism, our vulnerability, our prejudices (in the sense of pre-judging) about Islam and Muslims, and a legacy that has left many unresolved questions.
The theological considerations that you will have to weigh up include the problems and opportunities created by Christian/Muslim exchanges in your parish or community, including the attendance of Muslim children at Church-run schools; the possibility of intermarriage, the dilemmas surrounding interfaith public occasions; the increasing role of the Anglican Communion as one of the primary actors on behalf of Christians in creating the opportunities for Christian-Muslim dialogue; and the questions around whether we can learn from others, including Muslims, in ways that will deepen our own faith and our practice of it.
Liturgically and pastorally, you will have to face to questions such as:
Can a Muslim be a sponsor at baptism?
How do you deal with a request for a Muslim-Christian marriage in Church?
Can a Muslim read one of the readings at a baptism, wedding or funeral?
If a local Muslim leader wants to visit your church or school, where do you seat him during prayers?
How do you respond or behave when a Muslim leads prayers at a public or civic occasion?
How do you behave, as a local Christian leader, when you visit a mosque or Muslim-run school?
Islam in Ireland: some background
Despite popular perceptions, the majority of Muslims in Ireland probably are not foreigners, when we consider the number of Irish women who have become Muslims through marriage, and the number of Muslim children born in Ireland.
Historically, the first Irish contacts with the Islamic world predate the Anglo-Norman invasion, and the first regular contacts are found from the 17th century on. In the mid-17th century, baptisms in Roman Catholic parish records in Waterford City point to a Muslim presence there at that time. In the 18th and 19th centuries, baptisms in Church of Ireland parish records in Diocese of Raphoe and Roman Catholic parish records in Diocese of Ferns point to a Muslim presence from Co Donegal to Co Wexford in that time.
Indeed, in the late 18th century, one Muslim was an active member of the Volunteers – giving an added dimension to the ideal of uniting Protestant, Catholic and Dissenter.
In the 19th century, there was still an air of exotic excitement surrounding Muslims in Ireland. But their presence has grown here especially since the mid-1950s, with the arrival of a new wave of Muslims as medical students.
The history of the arrival and the makeup of Muslims in each European country is different: in France, Muslims are mainly of North African descent; in Germany, they are mainly Turkish in origin; while in Britain, their origins, by-and-large, are mainly in the Indian subcontinent.
But these images hinder our acceptance of Muslims as being truly European. There are many Muslims who are truly European in every sense, including those in Bosnia. We forget easily that Spain was a Muslim-ruled country for longer than it has been a Christian-ruled country, while Istanbul or Constantinople was seen as the greatest city in Christendom for much longer than it has been seen as a Muslim city.
In Ireland, Muslims come from a very mixed and diverse background, a large number are Irish-born, and increasingly they see themselves as being Irish, and part of the scenery, as part of the furniture.
How many of you know a Muslim?
How many of you visited a Muslim country?
How many of you have visited a mosque?
Students from CITI during a recent visit to the mosque in Clonskeagh (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2015)
In your ministry, you will encounter Muslims as neighbours, in civic and social public occasions, and you will encounter fear and suspicion among your own parishioners.
Some of this fear and suspicion in founded in reality. Yes, there is a threat from ISIS, al-Qaida and other jihadist groups. But it is a threat to security in the Muslim world too, when we consider recent violence, killings and bombings in Syria, Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan or Nigeria.
In terms of violence instigated by Muslims, statistically more Muslims are killed by Muslims in Syria, Iraq, Pakistan or Nigeria each week than Christians are killed by Muslims in Europe or in the US each week. Muslims can often fear each other more than we fear them. Many mainstream Muslims fear the rigorous approach to Islam among the Wahhabis, who are supported and nurtured in Saudi Arabia, and Sunni and Shia Muslims fear each other in Iraq, the Emirates, Pakistan and Nigeria.
Much of the fear – on their part and on our part – is irrational, and it is not based on knowledge, experience or reality.
We need to understand them, what they believe, who they are and where they come from.
Today, 1-in-5 people in the world are Muslims, and the breakdown of statistics produces interesting details. The majority of Muslims are not Arabs, and only 20 per cent of Muslims live in Arab countries. There are large communities of Muslims in the Balkans and Russia. The world’s largest Muslim country is Indonesia, and there are more Muslims in India than there are in Pakistan. The countries with the largest Muslim populations are Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, with more than 100 million Muslims each. There are 20 million Muslims in China. The Middle East countries with the largest Muslim populations are two non-Arab countries – Turkey and Iran. On the other hand, a large minority of Arabs are Christians, and there are even Arab Jews.
Yet, much of the fear of Muslims in the world today is based not on their religious beliefs, but is expressed in ways that are close to racism. We objectify them, make them “others” who are not part of “us,” and outsiders who bring nothing as gifts to us, but instead bring threats.
We need to see other-ness as a gift rather than a threat. And criticism and reaction, we offer it, needs not always to be negative, but certainly needs to be based on knowledge and experience.
What is Islam?
A decorated box in Konya, Turkey, said to contain the beard of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2015)
Islam (Arabic: الإسلام;
al-'islām) is a monotheistic Abrahamic faith dating to the teachings of Muhammad (ca 570-632), a 7th century Arab religious and political leader. The word Islam means ‘submission’ or the total surrender of oneself to God (Arabic: الله,
Allāh). And so, an adherent of Islam is a Muslim, or ‘one who submits (to God).’ With 1.1 billion to 1.8 billion Muslims in the world, Islam is the second-largest religion in the world, after Christianity.
Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad. They see him as God’s final prophet, and the regard the Qur'an and the
Sunnah (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam. They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but believe he restored the original monotheistic faith of Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.
Muslims are generally expected to observe the Five Pillars of Islam or the five duties that unite Muslims. In addition, Islamic law (
sharia) has developed a tradition of rulings that relate to virtually all aspects of life and society, from dietary laws and banking to warfare.
The word Islām means acceptance of and submission or surrender to God. Muslims demonstrate this submission by worshipping God, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. Islam is often described as an action of returning to God – more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.
What do Muslims believe?
An old, richly decorated copy of the Qur'an on display in Konya (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2015)
According to the Qur'an all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the Day of Judgment. There are other beliefs that are particular to different schools of Islam. For example, the Sunni concept of predestination is called divine decree, while the Shi'a version is called divine justice. Shi'a Muslims hold a unique understanding of
Imamah or the political and spiritual leadership of the Imams.
Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the angel Gabriel to Muhammad over a period of two decades or more in the years 610 to 632. The Qur'an mentions numerous figures considered as prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. The Qur'an names Jews and Christians as ‘People of the Book’ (
ahl al-kitāb), and distinguishes them from polytheists, although Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the
Tawrat (Torah) and the
Injil (Gospels), had become distorted – either in misinterpretation of the text, or in altering text, or both.
The fundamental theological concept of Islam is
tawhīd – the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is
Allāh; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words
al- (the) and
'ilāh (deity, masculine form), meaning ‘the God’ (
al-ilāh), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic
Alāhā.
Tawhīd, the first of the Five Pillars of Islam, is expressed in the
shahadah (testifying), which in which every believing Muslim declares that there is no god but the God, and that Muhammad is God’s messenger or prophet.
For Muslims, God is beyond all comprehension. They are not expected to visualise God, but to worship and adore him as the protector. Muslims will say that God is as close to us, to you, as the vein in your neck.
Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God. The Qur'an is divided into 114
suras, or chapters. The chronologically earlier suras, dating to Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later suras from Medina are concerned mostly with social and moral issues in the Muslim community. The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the ‘sourcebook of Islamic principles and values.’
In Islam, the ‘normative’ example of Muhammad’s life is called the
Sunnah (‘trodden path’). This example is preserved in traditions known as
hadith (‘reports’), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The
Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an and Muslim jurists see the
hadith, or the written record of Muhammad’s life, as supplementing the Qur'an and assisting in its interpretation. Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad’s actions in their daily lives.
Muslims regard their belief in angels as crucial to their faith. Their duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person’s soul at the time of death.
Muslims believe in the ‘Day of Resurrection,’
yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as
yawm ad-dīn, ‘Day of Judgment’ and
as-sā`a, ‘the Last Hour’) that its time is preordained by God although unknown to humanity. The Qur'an emphasises bodily resurrection, and says the resurrection of dead will be followed by the gathering of humanity, culminating in judgment by God.
The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, including disbelief, usury and dishonesty. Paradise (
jannah) is seen as a place of joy and bliss, with mystical traditions in Islam placing the heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.
Muslims believe in predestination, or divine preordaining (
al-qadā wa'l-qadar), so that God has full knowledge and control over all that happens. For Muslims, everything in the world that happens, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. However, while events are pre-ordained, we have freewill in that we have the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and so are responsible for our actions.
The Five Pillars of Islam
The Mevlâna Museum, mosque, tekke and surrounding buildings in Konya in Turkey (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2015)
The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims talk about eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars. These are:
1, The shahadah, which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam:
'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, or ‘I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God.’ This declaration of faith is the foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. (Shi'a Muslims consider the
shahadah to be belief and do not regard it as a separate pillar, just a belief.) Muslims repeat the
shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.
2, Salah, or ritual prayer, must be performed five times a day. However, Shi'a Muslims often run together the noon prayers with the afternoon prayers, and the evening prayers with the night prayers. Each
salah is performed facing towards Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. In many Muslim countries, reminders called
Adhan (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in Arabic, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.
3, Zakat, or almsgiving, is based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The
zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a ‘trust from God’s bounty.’ The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary almsgiving (
sadaqah). Many Shi'a Muslims are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a
khums tax, which they regard as a separate ritual practice.
4, Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan, requires Muslims not to eat or drink from dawn to dusk during Ramadan, when they should contemplate their sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God. During Ramadan, Muslims should express their gratitude to God and their dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy.
5, The Hajj is the pilgrimage during the month of
Dhu al-Hijjah to Mecca. All able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must undertake the
Hajj at least once in their lifetime. Islamic teachers say that the
hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing, although the pilgrim or
hajji is honoured in his or her community on returning home.
In addition to the
khums tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. These are:
1, Jihad, which the Sunni do not consider a pillar.
2, Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf, the ‘enjoining to do good,’ calls on every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same.
3, Nahi-Anil-Munkar, the ‘exhortation to desist from evil,’ enjoins Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to encourage others to do the same.
Some questions:
The minaret and dome of the Nerantze Mosque or Gazi Hussein Mosque in Rethymnon on the Greek island of Crete (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2016)
The concise expressions of faith in these five pillars offer an interesting challenge to Christians.
1, Can we express our faith in coherent yet concise phrases? Are we confident about making public declarations of faith?
2, Is our daily routine punctuated by rhythm of prayer? Are we embarrassed by postures of prayer that express public submission to God?
3, As a Church and as Christians, is our giving to charity, mission, or development work limited to mere duty, or do we go beyond that? Is it an essential part of Christian life and discipleship?
4, Have we lost the spiritual values of fasting and preparation associated with Lent and Advent?
5, Do we see our lives as pilgrimages, that ‘this land is not my home, I am only travelling through?’ How do you respond to ideas such as pilgrimage and retreat?
Islamic Law or Sharia
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. There are the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. There are laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, and rules for fasting, charity, and prayer.
Islamic law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the
Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (
ijma), and analogical reasoning (
qiyas).
Islamic law does not distinguish between matters of ‘church’ and ‘state.’ The
ulema function as both jurists and theologians. But as the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been a secular state since the reforms of Atatürk, while the Iranian Revolution in 1979 replaced a mainly secular regime with an Islamic state under Ayatollah Khomeini.
Many practices fall into the category of
adab or Islamic etiquette, including greeting each other with
as-salamu `alaykum (‘peace be unto you’), saying
bismillah (‘in the name of God’) before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male children.
Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from herbivorous animals slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian. Muslims may also eat game they have hunted or fished for themselves. Food that Muslims may eat is known as
halal food.
Islamic scholars disagree whether the texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (
purdah).
What is Jihad?
Jihad means ‘to strive or struggle’ in the way of God and a small number of Muslim scholars regard it as the ‘sixth pillar of Islam.’
Jihad, in its broadest sense, is ‘exerting one’s utmost power, efforts, endeavours, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation.’ This may be a visible enemy, the devil, or some aspects of one’s own self. But
jihad also describes striving to attain religious and moral perfection.
Jihad usually means military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defence or expansion of the Islamic state, the ultimate purpose of which is to universalise Islam.
Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, non-Islamic leaders or states that refuse to submit to the authority of Islam. Most Muslims understand
jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.
For most Muslims,
jihad is a collective duty: its performance by some individuals exempts the others. For most Shia Muslims, offensive
jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Islamic community.
One of the leaders of ‘neo-Sufism’ in modern Turkey, Said Nursi, argued that the time of the ‘
jihad of the sword’ is over, and that now is the era of the ‘
jihad of the word,” meaning a reasoned attempt to propose Islam as a basis for a reconciliation of science and modern institutions with religious faith and morality. As early as 1911, Nursi argued that Muslims and ‘pious Christians’ should make common cause in defending a moral and spiritual vision of human life against the momentary illusions of consumer culture.
The divisions of Islam
The richly-decorated interior of a mosque in Turkey, inscribed with words from the Qur'an (Photograph: Patrick Comerford)
Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief but with significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism generally considered a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. About 85 per cent of Muslims are Sunni and about 15% are Shi'a.
Sunnis recognise four major legal traditions, or
madhhabs: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he/she finds agreeable. There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent Salafi movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.
Within 18th century Sunni Islam, the Wahhabi movement took hold in what is now Saudi Arabia today. Wahhabism was founded by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, and is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.
The 20th century saw the formation of many new Islamic ‘revivalist’ movements, including the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan. They see Western cultural values as a threat to Islam, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. They inspired later movements such as the Taliban in Afghanistan and Osama bin Laden’s al-Qaida.
Shi'a Muslims believe in the political and religious leadership of infallible Imams from the descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib. They say that Ali, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence. Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (
itnā'ašariyya), while the others are the Ismaili, the Seveners, and the Zaidiyyah.
Muslim mystics and Sufism
A ‘Whirling Dervish’ performance in Uçhisar in Cappadocia (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2015)
Many Westerners have been introduced to Islamic spirituality through contact with or reading about Sufism. Sufism has been described as ‘the pursuit of spiritual experience by bodily discipline and mystical intuition’ (HAR Gibb). Professor Victor Danner, in
The Islamic Tradition (1988), says: ‘Sufism has influenced the spiritual life of the [Islamic] religion to an extraordinary degree; there is no important domain in the civilisation of Islam that has remained unaffected by it.’
While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasising rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that evolved into Sufism.
Both Sufism and Shi'ism underwent major changes in the 9th century, so that Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism splintered into different groups, due to disagreements over the succession of Imams, many of them developing their own emphasis on mysticism.
The tomb of Rumi in Konya is covered with brocade embroidered in gold with verses from the Koran (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2015)
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely due to the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimise and reorganise Sufism. He developed the model of the Sufi order – a community of spiritual teachers and students. Another important development for Sufism was the creation of the
Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The
Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought, and for many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.
Sufism (Arabic: تصوف -
taṣawwuf, Turkish:
tasavvuf, Persian: صوفیگری,
sufigari) is not a denomination within Islam. Instead, it is understood as the mystical-ascetic dimension of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of “intuitive and emotional faculties” that one must be trained to use. Most Sufi orders or brotherhoods are known as tariqas. They may be associated with Sunni Islam or Shia Islam, although the major ones, such as the Qadiri and Naqshbandi orders, are associated with traditional Sunni Islam.
The word Sufi is said to originate from Arabic صوف (
sūf), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. Others say the root word of Sufi is the Arabic صفا (
safā), meaning purity, referring to the Sufi emphasis on purity of heart and soul.
Others suggest the origin is from
Ašhab as-Sufā (‘Companions of the Porch’) or Ahl as-Sufā (‘People of the Porch’) – a group of devout Muslims who spent much of their time on the veranda of Mohammad’s mosque, devoted to prayer. However, the 10th century Persian historian Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī linked the word
sūfīya with the Greek word
Sophia (wisdom, especially divine wisdom).
A practitioner of Sufism is generally known as a Sufi (Arabic: صُوفِيّ), although some senior members of the tradition reserve this term for those who have attained the goals of the Sufi tradition. Another common name is the word Dervish (derived from Persian: درویش -
darwīš).
Almost all traditional Sufi schools (or orders) trace their chains of transmission back to Muhammad through his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib. The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception, and traces its origins to the first Caliph, Abdullah (Abu Bakr).
Sheikh Ahmad Zarruq, a 15th century Sufi master, wrote in his major work
The Principles of Sufism that Sufism is ‘a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God.’ Sheikh Ahmad ibn Ajiba, a famous Moroccan Sufi, defined Sufism as ‘a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one’s inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits.’
Sufis believe that it is possible to become close to God and to experience this closeness while one is alive. The chief aim of all Sufis is to let go of all notions of duality, including any concept of an individual self, and to realise the Divine unity.
Sufis teachers make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor, and it is held by Sufis that meaning can only be reached through a process of seeking the truth, and knowledge of oneself. Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience.
Junayd al-Baghdadi was among the first theorists of Sufism. He concerned himself with
fanā and
baqā, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena derived from the altitude of that perspective. Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan al-Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib are regarded as the first mystics among the
Taabi'een in Islam. Rabia al-Basri was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God.
Rumi, a universal mystic and a devout Muslim ... his way of Sufism teaches unlimited tolerance, positive reasoning, goodness, charity and awareness through love
A significant part of oriental literature comes from the Sufis, who created books of poetry containing the teachings of the Sufis. Some of the more notable examples of this poetry are Attar’s
Conference of the Birds and Rumi’s
Masnavi. Rumi, or Mevlana Celaleddin-i-Rumi (Jalal-e-Din Rūmī, 1207-1273) was a universal mystic and a devout Muslim. His way of Sufism teaches unlimited tolerance, positive reasoning, goodness, charity and awareness through love. The Mevlevi order was formalised and propagated by his son Sultan Walad and the scribe of the
Mathnawi, Husamaddin Chalabi.
From 1200 to 1500, the ‘Classical Period’ or the ‘Golden Age’ of Sufism, there was an increase in Sufi activity throughout the Islamic world. This period is considered as. Lodges and hospices soon became not only places to house Sufi students, but also places for practicing Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat.
Mujaddid Alf Sani, a 17th century reformer of the Naqshbandi order, is also a seminal personality in the propagation of Sufism, as he began a movement that aimed to purify Islam by returning to the Quran and the Sunna as the basic sources for Islam, while maintaining the integrity of the spiritual dimension of Islam.
Sufi practices
Dhikr is recollecting or remembering the name of God, which is commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims. This has been one of the most fundamental features of Sufism from the beginning. To engage in
dhikr is to have awareness of God. The practice of
dhikr within Sufism is a devotional act including the repetition of the divine names, supplications and aphorisms from the
hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. Some Sufi orders have developed ritualised
dhikr ceremonies that may include recitation, singing, instrumental music, dance, costumes, incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance.
Muraqaba is a form of meditation used to attain higher states of consciousness.
Sufi whirling or spinning, a twirling meditation that originated among the Turkish Sufis, it is still practiced by the Dervishes of the Mevlevi order
Sufism has produced a large body of poetry alongside numerous traditions of devotional dance, such as Sufi whirling, and music, such as
Qawwali, a form of devotional Sufi music found throughout Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey and known for its secular strains.
Sama or
Sema' (Arabic ‘listening’) refers to Sufi practices that can involve the sort of music and dance associated with the “whirling dervishes.” The practice of Sufi whirling or spinning (Arabic: رقص سماع) is a twirling meditation that originated among the Turkish Sufis, and it is still practiced by the Dervishes of the Mevlevi order. It is a symbolic ritual through which dervishes (
semazens) aim to reach the ‘perfect’ (
kemal). They try to desert their
nafs, egos or personal bad desires by listening to their master and to Sufi music, thinking about God and whirling.
In the symbolism of the
Sema ritual, the semazen’s camel-hair hat (
sikke) represents the tombstone of the ego. His wide, white skirt represents the ego’s shroud. By removing his black cloak, he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of the
Sema, the
semazen holds his arms crosswise, to represent the number one, thus testifying to God’s unity. While whirling, his arms are open: his right arm is pointed towards the sky, ready to receive God’s blessings; his left hand, upon which his eyes are fastened, is turned towards the earth.
The
semazen conveys God’s spiritual gift to those who are witnessing the
Sema. Revolving from right to left around the heart, the
semazen embraces all humanity with love. The human being has been created with love in order to love. Rumi says: ‘All loves are a bridge to Divine love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it do not know!’
Recently, there was a performance by Whirling Dervishes in the Vatican, providing an occasion to discuss the diverse nature of Islam.
Sufism emphasises non-quantifiable matters, such as states of the heart. The authors of many Sufi treatises used allegorical language to describe these states, in some cases comparing them with intoxication, which is forbidden in Islam. Some groups even considered themselves above the
Sharia and spoke of Sufism as a method of by-passing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly.
Sufi mystical poetry:
Rumi (1207-1273) was a Sufi mystic who founded the Mevlevi order, known as the Whirling Dervishes. His masterpiece, the six-volume
Mathnawi, dates from 1248 on, and was first written in Persian, and includes parables, ecstatic love odes, jokes and practical advice on meditation. In recent years, he has received new popularity in the west.
One of his poems that I love best is ‘The Mouse and the Frog,’ from which I quote:
A mouse and a frog met every morning
on the riverbank.
They sit in a nook of the ground and talk.
Each morning, the second they see each other,
they open easily, telling stories and dreams and secrets,
empty of any fear or suspicious holding-back.
To watch and listen to those two
is to understand how, as it’s written,
sometimes when two beings come together,
Christ becomes visible.
Or another poem from Rumi:
A soul not clothed with Love
brings shame on its existence.
Be drunk on Love,
for Love is all that exists.
They ask, ‘What is Love?’
Say, ‘Renouncing your will.’
He who has not renounced will
has no will at all.
The lover is a mighty king,
standing above the two worlds.
A king does not look
at what is beneath him.
Only Love and lovers
have eternal life.
Set your hearts on this alone;
the rest is merely borrowed.
(
Divani-I Shamsi-I Tabrizi 455: A1:54, translation John Baldock).
Two other examples are provided by Rabi’ah al-’Adawiyyah (
ca 717-801), who is one of the best-known saints in Islam and is a prominent figure in Sufi mysticism. Her poetry and writings have been compared with those of the later great Spanish mystics, including Saint Teresa of Avila and Saint John of the Cross:
‘Love of God hath so absorbed me that neither love nor hate nor any other thing remains in my heart.’
A lifelong celibate, her devotion and love for God was so great that she is credited with being one of the first great Sufis to give ecstatic voice to the theme of Divine Love. Her poems about the love of God are among the first love poems in Sufi literature.
I love thee with two loves, love of my happiness,
And perfect love, to love thee as is my due.
My selfish love is that I do naught
But think on thee, excluding all beside;
But that purest love, which is thy due,
Is that the veils which hide thee fall, and I gaze on thee,
No praise to me in either this or that,
Nay, thine the praise for both that love and this.
The 99 names of God:
In Indonesia, it is reports said, a growing number of young students and affluent housewives are attracted to Sufi prayer services, especially Thursday night gatherings when followers sing the 99 names of God.
The Sufi practice of meditating on the 99 names of God found in the Quran has become popular throughout the Islamic world. These 99 names, which do not include the name Allah, are usually listed as:
1, Ar-Rahman, the All-Compassionate
2, Ar-Rahim, the All-Merciful
3, Al-Malik, the Absolute Ruler
4, Al-Quddus, the Pure One
5, As-Salam, the Source of Peace
6, Al-Mu'min, the Inspirer of Faith
7, Al-Muhaymin, the Guardian
8, Al-'Aziz, the Victorious
9, Al-Jabbar, the Compeller
10, Al-Mutakabbir, the Greatest
11, Al-Khaliq, the Creator
12, Al-Bari', the Maker of Order
13, Al-Musawwir, the Shaper of Beauty
14, Al-Ghaffar, the Forgiving
15, Al-Qahhar, the Subduer
16, Al-Wahhab, the Giver of All
17, Ar-Razzaq, the Sustainer
18, Al-Fattah, the Opener
19, Al-'Alim, the Knower of All
20, Al-Qabid, the Constrictor
21, Al-Basit, the Reliever
22, Al-Khafid, the Abaser
23, Ar-Rafi', the Exalter
24, Al-Mu'izz, the Bestower of Honours
25, Al-Mudhill, the Humiliator
26, As-Sami, the Hearer of All
27, Al-Basir, the Seer of All
28, Al-Hakam, the Judge
29, Al-'Adl, the Just
30, Al-Latif, the Subtle One
31, Al-Khabir, the All-Aware
32, Al-Halim, the Forebearing
33, Al-'Azim, the Magnificent
34, Al-Ghafur, the Forgiver and Hider of Faults
35, Ash-Shakur, the Rewarder of Thankfulness
36, Al-'Ali, the Highest
37, Al-Kabir, the Greatest
38, Al-Hafiz, the Preserver
39, Al-Muqit, the Nourisher
40, Al-Hasib, the Accounter
41, Al-Jalil, the Mighty
42, Al-Karim, the Generous
43, Ar-Raqib, the Watchful One
44, Al-Mujib, the Responder to Prayer
45, Al-Wasi', the All-Comprehending
46, Al-Hakim, the Perfectly Wise
47, Al-Wadud, the Loving One
48, Al-Majíd, the Majestic One
49, Al-Ba'ith, the Resurrector
50, Ash-Shahid, the Witness
51, Al-Haqq, the Truth
52, Al-Wakil, the Trustee
53, Al-Qawi, the Possessor of All Strength
54, Al-Matin, the Forceful One
55, Al-Wáli, the Governor
56, Al-Hamid, the Praised One
57, Al-Muhsi, the Appraiser
58, Al-Mubdi, the Originator
59, Al-Mu'id, the Restorer
60, Al-Muhyi, the Giver of Life
61, Al-Mumit, the Taker of Life
62, Al-Hayy, the Ever-Living One
63, Al-Qayyum, the Self-Existing One
64, Al-Wajid, the Finder
65, Al-Májid, the Glorious
66, Al-Wahid, the Only One
67, Al-Ahad, the One
68, As-Samad, the Satisfier of All Needs
69, Al-Qadir, the All-Powerful
70, Al-Muqtadir, the Creator of All Power
71, Al-Muqaddim, the Expediter
72, Al-Mu'akhkhir, the Delayer
73, Al-Awwal, the First
74, Al-Akhir, the Last
75, Az-Zahir, the Manifest One
76, Al-Batin, the Hidden One
77, Al-Walí, the Protecting Friend
78, Al-Muta'ali, the Supreme One
79, Al-Barr, the Doer of Good
80, At-Tawwib, the Guide to Repentance
81, Al-Muntaqim, the Avenger
82, Al-Afu, the Forgiver
83, Ar-Ra'uf, the Clement
84, Malik al-Mulk, the Owner of All
85, Dhul-Jalali Wal-Ikram, the Lord of Majesty and Bounty
86, Al-Muqsit, the Equitable One
87, Al-Jami, the Gatherer
88, Al-Ghani, the Rich One
89, Al-Mughni, the Enricher
90, Al-Mani', the Preventer of Harm
91, Ad-Darr, the Creator of the Harmful
92, An-Nafi, the Creator of Good
93, An-Nur, the Light
94, Al-Hadi, the Guide
95, Al-Badi, the Originator
96, Al-Baqi, the Everlasting One
97, Al-Warith, the Inheritor of All
98, Ar-Rashid, the Righteous Teacher
99, As-Sabur, the Patient One
The word
Allah simply means ‘The God’.
Do you think any of the 99 Names would be out of place in a Christian litany?
Which names do you think have Biblical resonances?
Compare 73 and 74, the First and the Last, with the Alpha and the Omega.
How about the way, the truth and the light?
The Christian composer John Tavener, who died three years ago [2013], was commissioned by Prince Charles to write
The Beautiful Names, a musical setting for the 99 Names of God drawn from the Qur'an and performed in Westminster Abbey. This eclectic work draws inspiration from several religions other than Islam and Christianity, but has provoked unease among Christians who regard it as inappropriate for performance in a Christian church.
Christopher Howse, a Roman Catholic columnist in the
Daily Telegraph, wrote some years ago: ‘The word
Allah refers to the same God that Jews and Christians worship. There is no doubt of that. He is the God of Abraham and Isaac; the one living God. He is the God that Jesus worshipped and whom he invoked, in Aramaic, as he died on the cross, calling on him by the name
Eloi.’ However, these views also drew a storm of protest.
Christian-Muslim dialogue
The minaret of a mosque glimpsed between the dome and the bell tower of two churches in Rethymnon in Crete (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2016)
In 2006, 100 leading Islamic authorities and scholars signed an Open Letter in response to Pope Benedict XVIII’s Regensburg address. This was followed with a message from 138 Muslim leaders addressed to the Pope, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and others, calling for co-operation on the basis of the fundamental principles of love of God and neighbour, the ‘two great commandments’ recalled by Christ in Mark 12: 29-31.
They said the commandments to love of God and neighbour – found in both the Qur'an and the Bible – are the ‘common word’ that offers to the encounter between Islam and Christianity ‘the most solid theological foundation possible.’
The official website of the second letter can be found
here.
Some reading:
Called to Dialogue, Interreligious and Intra-Christian Dialogue in Ecumenical Conversation, a Practical Guide (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 2016).
Coleman Barks has three volumes of translation of Rumi’s poetry:
Like This,
Open Secret and
We are three.
Clare Amos,
Peace-ing Together Jerusalem (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 2014).
John Baldock,
The Essence of Rumi (London: Arcturus, 2006).
John Baldock,
The Essence of Sufism (Royston: Eagle/Arcturus, 2004).
John Bowker,
Voices of Islam (Oxford: One World, 1995).
Colin Chapman,
Cross & Crescent: responding to the challenge of Islam (Leicester: IVP, 1995).
Patrick Comerford,
Embracing Difference, the Church of Ireland in a Plural Society (Dublin: Church of Ireland Publishing, 2007).
Patrick Comerford,
Reflections of the Bible in the Qur'an (Dublin: National Bible Society of Ireland, 2009).
JS Cutsinger,
Paths to the Heart: Sufism and the Christian East (Bloomington IN: World Wisdom, 2002).
William Dalrymple,
From the Holy Mountain: a journey in the shadow of Byzantium (London: Flamingo/Harper Collins, 1998).
Hugh Goddard,
Christians & Muslims: From double standards to mutual understanding (Richmond: Curzon Press, 1995).
BE Hinze and IA Omar (eds),
Heirs of Abraham: the future of Muslim, Jewish and Christian Relations (Maryknoll NY: Orbis, 2005).
Michael Ipgrave (ed),
The Road Ahead: a Christian-Muslim Dialogue (London: Church House Publishing, 2002).
Michael Ipgrave (ed),
Scriptures in Dialogue: Christians and Muslims studying the Bible and the Qur'an together (London: Church House Publishing, 2004).
Tarif Khalidi,
The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
Michael Nazir-Ali,
Islam: A Christian Perspective (Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1983).
Michael Nazir-Ali,
Mission and Dialogue (London: SPCK, 1995).
Leslie Newbigin, Lamin Sanneh and Jenny Taylor,
Faith and Power: Christianity and Islam in ‘Secular’ Britain (London: SPCK, 1998).
Malise Ruthven,
Islam in the West (London: Penguin, 2000).
The modern village mosque in Çavuşin, north of Göreme, seen from the abandoned Greek Orthodox basilica of Saint John in Cappadocia (Photograph: Patrick Comerford, 2015)
(Revd Canon Professor) Patrick Comerford is Lecturer in Anglicanism, Liturgy and Church History, the Church of Ireland Theological Institute, and an Adjunct Assistant Professor, the University of Dublin (Trinity College Dublin). These notes were prepared for an introduction to Islam prior to a mosque visit on 15 December 2016 as part of the Module TH8824: Liturgy, Worship and Spirituality on the MTh course.
